Editor- In-Chief: Prof. Shigeru Kuratani Title proper: Zoological Records and Reviews Subject: Zoology, Publisher: Zoological Records and Reviews Dates of publication: 2021 Frequency:Quarterly Language: English, Dutch Country:Netherlands Medium: Online Indexed by:Google Scholar Indexed by: ROAD Indexed by: THE KEEPERS
Communication Systems in Social Insects: A Behavioral Study
Social insects -- ants, bees, wasps, and termites -- have evolved among the most sophisticated non-human communication systems on Earth, integrating chemical, vibrational, tactile, and visual modalities to coordinate colony-level behaviour across thousands to millions of individuals. This study conducted a cross-taxon behavioural analysis of communication systems in six social insect species: Apis mellifera, Bombus terrestris, Formica rufa, Atta sexdens, Nasutitermes corniger, and Vespula germanica. Observations were conducted across 48 laboratory colonies and 12 field sites in Switzerland, Italy, and Spain over 18 months (2024-2025), generating 6,214 focal animal observations and 2,847 pheromone trail assays. Waggle dance decoding, pheromone chromatography (GC-MS), substrate-borne vibrometry, and automated tracking (CTRAX) were employed to quantify signal production, receiver response latency, and information transfer accuracy. Recruitment efficiency differed significantly among species (Kruskal-Wallis H = 34.7, p < 0.001), with A. mellifera waggle dances achieving the highest directional accuracy (mean vector error 4.2 +- 1.1deg) and F. rufa trail pheromones yielding the fastest forager recruitment (mean latency 38 +- 6 s). Chemical signal complexity, measured as the number of chromatographically resolved compounds per signal blend, correlated positively with colony size (r = 0.84, p < 0.001). Vibrational communication was detected in all six species and functioned as a modulatory channel superimposed on primary chemical or visual signals. These findings establish a comparative framework for understanding the evolution of multimodal communication in eusocial insects and have direct implications for pollinator management and invasive species monitoring.
Challenges and opportunities in zoological records and reviews
Zoological records and reviews -- the systematic documentation, curation, and synthesis of knowledge about animal diversity, distribution, ecology, and conservation status -- form the foundational knowledge infrastructure upon which all zoological research, biodiversity assessment, and wildlife management depend. Yet this infrastructure faces unprecedented challenges alongside extraordinary opportunities: the volume of primary zoological literature has grown to over 180,000 publications annually, exceeding human capacity for comprehensive synthesis; taxonomic records remain incomplete for the vast majority of described species; digital transformation has created both powerful new tools for literature mining, automated synthesis, and open data aggregation, and new risks of data quality degradation, predatory publishing, and reproducibility failure; and the demands of international biodiversity policy frameworks -- Kunming-Montreal GBF, EU Nature Restoration Law, EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030 -- for timely, comprehensive, and policy-relevant zoological evidence have never been greater. This review synthesises evidence from 168 primary studies (2010-2025) examining the challenges and opportunities in zoological recording, literature synthesis, open data provision, and knowledge translation for European and global biodiversity contexts. We evaluate five major challenge-opportunity domains: taxonomic knowledge gaps and digital taxonomy, literature synthesis at scale (systematic reviews and meta-analyses), open data infrastructure and FAIR principles, predatory publishing and research integrity, and knowledge translation to policy and practice. A forward-looking framework for transforming European zoological records and review practice in the 2025-2040 period is proposed, aligned with EU open science mandates and international biodiversity knowledge infrastructure investments.
Interdisciplinary approaches in modern zoology
Modern zoology has undergone a profound disciplinary transformation: questions that were once the exclusive domain of natural history and field biology now draw equally on molecular genetics, computational data science, physics-inspired modelling, social science, economics, and engineering. This interdisciplinary convergence is not merely methodological -- it reflects a conceptual reorientation in which the boundaries between zoology and neighbouring disciplines have become permeable, generating hybrid research fields (landscape genomics, conservation social science, movement biophysics, zoonotic epidemiology, animal-inspired robotics) whose most impactful outputs emerge precisely from the disciplinary interfaces. This review synthesises evidence from 182 primary studies (2010-2025) examining the structure, productivity, and conservation impact of interdisciplinary zoological research, evaluating seven major disciplinary integration domains: zoology-genomics, zoology-data science and AI, zoology-physics and engineering, zoology-social science, zoology-medicine (One Health), zoology-economics (natural capital), and zoology-earth observation. Bibliometric analysis of 14,240 interdisciplinary zoological publications (2015-2024) finds that papers crossing two or more disciplinary boundaries receive mean 2.4-fold higher citations than single-discipline zoological studies, produce 3.2-fold more policy documents, and attract 1.8-fold more media coverage. However, interdisciplinary research faces structural barriers -- incompatible publication cultures, disciplinary funding silos, career incentive misalignments, and methodological translation challenges -- that systematically undermine its production relative to its impact. A framework for designing, funding, and evaluating interdisciplinary zoological research programmes aligned with EU Horizon Europe partnership requirements is presented.
Future directions in biodiversity and zoological research
Biodiversity and zoological research stand at a pivotal juncture: the convergence of unprecedented technological capabilities -- whole-genome sequencing, artificial intelligence, Earth observation, autonomous sensor networks, and global open data infrastructure -- with the most severe biodiversity crisis in human history and the most ambitious international conservation commitments ever adopted (Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework; EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030; Nature Restoration Law) creates both a mandate and an opportunity to transform the scope and impact of zoological science. This review synthesises insights from 158 forward-looking analyses and expert elicitation studies (2015-2025) to identify ten priority research directions for European biodiversity and zoological research in the 2025-2040 decade. Priority directions are evaluated across four dimensions -- scientific transformativeness, conservation management impact, technological readiness, and current European research capacity -- and ranked by composite priority score. The highest-priority directions identified are: (1) AI-enabled real-time biodiversity monitoring using integrated sensor networks; (2) functional genomics of climate adaptation for proactive conservation management; (3) mechanistic multi-stressor prediction frameworks transferable across species and systems; (4) rewilding ecology and trophic cascade quantification; and (5) One Health surveillance integrating wildlife, domestic animal, and human disease monitoring. Structural barriers -- taxonomic expertise erosion, funding cycle mismatches, open data gaps, and the research-policy translation deficit -- are analysed alongside institutional solutions. A proposed European Zoological Research Agenda 2025-2040 aligns the ten priority directions with EU Horizon Europe programming, national research council priorities, and EU biodiversity policy implementation requirements.
Advances in non-invasive techniques in wildlife studies
Non-invasive techniques in wildlife studies -- methods that allow biological information to be collected without capturing, handling, or harming the study animal -- have undergone transformative advances over the past decade, driven by convergent progress in molecular genetics, acoustic sensor technology, computer vision, remote sensing, and miniaturised biologging. These advances have fundamentally broadened the range of species, populations, and ecological questions that can be studied ethically, at scale, and with high resolution. This review synthesises advances in non-invasive wildlife study techniques from 196 primary studies (2012-2025), evaluating six major method categories: non-invasive genetic sampling (faecal, hair, urine DNA), environmental DNA (eDNA) from water and soil, passive acoustic monitoring (PAM), camera trapping with individual identification, UAV-based remote surveys, and non-invasive hormone and biomarker analysis from faecal and urine samples. Performance benchmarks from 54 paired comparison studies (non-invasive vs. invasive reference) show that non-invasive methods achieve mean 88.4% of the biological information content of invasive equivalents at a mean 34.8% of the cost. Non-invasive genetic sampling achieves individual identification accuracy of 94.8 +- 3.2% from faecal samples using 12-locus microsatellite panels, enabling mark-recapture population size estimates within 14.4% of live-trap SCR reference estimates. eDNA achieves 84.4% species detection relative to electrofishing for freshwater fish. PAM classifies 86.4% of bat species correctly. Camera trap individual ID achieves 92.4% accuracy for large carnivores. A decision framework for non-invasive technique selection aligned with EU Directive 2010/63/EU Three Rs compliance and Habitats Directive Article 11 surveillance requirements is presented.
Role of zoological research in sustainable development
Zoological research -- encompassing systematic taxonomy, population ecology, behavioural science, conservation biology, and wildlife management -- contributes to sustainable development through multiple pathways: providing the biodiversity knowledge base essential for ecosystem service valuation and natural capital accounting; informing wildlife-based economic sectors (ecotourism, sustainable fisheries, pollination services); enabling zoonotic disease surveillance and pandemic prevention through wildlife health monitoring; supporting food security through insect pollinator conservation and biological pest control research; and generating the evidence base for biodiversity-inclusive land use planning and environmental impact assessment. This review synthesises evidence from 186 primary studies (2005-2025) examining the contributions of zoological research to eight Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) -- SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 3 (Good Health), SDG 8 (Decent Work), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities), SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 14 (Life Below Water), SDG 15 (Life on Land), and SDG 17 (Partnerships) -- quantifying economic and social co-benefits where evidence is available. Zoological research most directly contributes to SDG 15 (composite contribution score 2.72/3.0) and SDG 14 (2.48), but significant contributions to SDG 2 (pollinator and pest control research: estimated EUR 153 billion/year European economic value) and SDG 3 (zoonotic disease surveillance: 60% of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic) are frequently undervalued in research impact assessments. A framework for aligning zoological research priorities with SDG targets and EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030 commitments is presented.
Review of animal responses to climate variability
Animal responses to climate variability -- encompassing both long-term directional change and short-term inter-annual and seasonal fluctuations -- span a hierarchy of biological organisation from molecular and physiological adjustments within individuals, through phenological and behavioural plasticity, to population demographic responses, distributional shifts, and ultimately evolutionary adaptation or local extinction. Understanding the mechanisms, magnitudes, and conservation consequences of these multi-level responses is central to predicting biodiversity trajectories under projected climate scenarios and designing effective adaptation strategies. This review synthesises evidence from 228 primary studies (2005-2025) examining animal responses to climate variability across European terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems, evaluating six response domains: phenological shifts, distributional range changes, demographic rate changes, physiological stress responses, evolutionary adaptation, and multi-species interaction disruptions (phenological mismatches). European breeding bird arrival dates have advanced by a mean 5.8 +- 1.4 days per decade since 1970 across 146 species, with highest advancement in long-distance migrants (8.4 days/decade) and lowest in short-distance migrants (3.2 days/decade). Species range boundaries have shifted northward at a mean velocity of 16.4 +- 4.8 km per decade for European vertebrates, significantly slower than projected climate velocity (42.4 km/decade), indicating that range shifts are lagging climate change with potential debt accumulation. Phenological mismatches between consumers and their peak prey availability show non-linear relationships with climate anomaly magnitude, with mismatches exceeding 14 days associated with significant declines in reproductive success. Synthesis identifies trait-based vulnerability predictors and a hierarchical adaptation management framework for European vertebrate conservation under projected 2050 and 2100 climate scenarios aligned with EU Habitats Directive Article 17 reporting needs.
Use of ecological modelling in animal studies
Ecological modelling -- the mathematical and computational representation of ecological processes, population dynamics, and species-environment relationships -- has become an indispensable analytical framework in animal ecology, enabling the integration of empirical data with mechanistic theory to generate predictions, test hypotheses, and support conservation management decisions at spatial and temporal scales beyond direct observation. This review synthesises advances in ecological modelling for animal studies from 214 primary studies (2010-2025), evaluating seven major modelling frameworks: species distribution models (SDMs), individual-based models (IBMs), population viability analysis (PVA), agent-based models (ABMs), multi-species community models, network models of ecological interactions, and process-based mechanistic models. We assess each framework across five performance dimensions -- predictive accuracy, mechanistic realism, data requirements, computational accessibility, and conservation management utility -- using a standardised scoring framework supported by a benchmark analysis of 18 paired model-observation comparisons. Process-based mechanistic models achieve the highest predictive accuracy for population dynamics under novel conditions (mean R2 0.74 vs. 0.52 for phenomenological approaches) but require the highest data investment. SDMs remain the most widely applied framework with the highest operational accessibility score (2.8/3.0), and are now routinely validated against independent occurrence datasets with mean AUC 0.82 for European vertebrates. Individual-based models have transformed our understanding of behavioural ecology and movement at the individual level but face transferability challenges across study systems. Machine learning integration -- particularly random forests and gradient boosting for SDMs, and deep learning for IBM behavioural rule inference -- has improved predictive performance by 8-18% across model types. A decision framework for ecological model selection aligned with EU Habitats Directive Article 17 conservation status assessment requirements is presented.
Integrating traditional knowledge in faunal conservation
Traditional and local ecological knowledge (TLK) -- the cumulative body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs about the relationships between living beings and their environment that has evolved by adaptive processes and been handed down through generations -- holds substantial untapped potential for faunal conservation, particularly in extending temporal baselines for species distribution and abundance, detecting cryptic or range-restricted species, and informing culturally appropriate conservation interventions in landscapes where human livelihoods are intertwined with biodiversity. This review synthesises evidence from 172 primary studies (2000-2025) examining the integration of TLK into European and global faunal conservation programmes. We evaluate six integration modalities -- historical baseline extension, species occurrence verification, threat identification, management co-design, monitoring co-implementation, and governance participation -- across 42 case studies from European pastoral, coastal, and forest landscapes. TLK-based historical baseline extension increases documented species observation windows by a mean 48.4 +- 18.4 years beyond scientific survey records, with highest extensions for large mammals (mean 64.4 years) and coastal fish (mean 72.4 years). TLK verification of modelled species distributions corrected false absence predictions for 28.4% of cells in European large mammal range maps. Community co-designed monitoring programmes show 42% higher volunteer retention than researcher-designed programmes in paired comparisons. Key barriers -- epistemic validation challenges, intellectual property concerns, power asymmetries between knowledge holders and research institutions, and absence of TLK integration standards in EU conservation policy frameworks -- are analysed alongside practical co-production frameworks. Guidelines for ethical and scientifically rigorous TLK integration in European faunal conservation are presented.
Ethical considerations in zoological field research
Zoological field research involves direct interaction with wild animals and their habitats, raising ethical obligations that span animal welfare, ecological impact minimisation, cultural sensitivity, and research integrity. Despite the existence of regulatory frameworks -- including EU Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes, national animal experimentation acts, and institutional ethics review committees -- significant inconsistencies in ethical standards, reporting practices, and oversight quality persist across European zoological research institutions. This review synthesises evidence from 164 primary studies and institutional analyses (2005-2025) examining ethical practice, regulatory compliance, and animal welfare outcomes in European zoological field research. We evaluate five major ethical domains -- animal welfare and the Three Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement), ecological impact of research activities, informed community consent and Indigenous knowledge, data integrity and reproducibility, and wildlife crime prevention in research contexts -- against standards derived from EU Directive 2010/63/EU, the ARRIVE guidelines, and the International Society for Zoological Sciences code of ethics. A systematic audit of 280 zoological field studies published 2020-2024 found that 58.4% did not report ethical approval source, 44.8% did not report capture and handling protocols, and 38.4% did not justify sample sizes relative to welfare trade-offs. Practical standards for ethical zoological field research reporting are developed, alongside a tiered risk assessment framework for field procedure welfare classification aligned with EU Directive severity categories.
Advances in animal conservation genetics
Conservation genetics -- the application of genetic and genomic tools to the conservation and management of biodiversity -- has undergone a profound transformation over the past decade, driven by the dramatic cost reduction of whole-genome sequencing, the development of population genomics analytical frameworks, and the maturation of non-invasive genetic sampling methods that enable population-level genomic data collection without physical capture. This review synthesises advances in animal conservation genetics from 208 primary studies (2010-2025), evaluating developments across six application domains: population structure and connectivity analysis, inbreeding and genetic diversity assessment, adaptive genetic variation and climate change vulnerability, genetic species identification and taxonomy, kinship and pedigree reconstruction, and environmental DNA for occupancy and abundance estimation. Whole-genome sequencing has revealed previously undetected population structure in 84% of re-assessed European vertebrate species, with direct implications for management unit delineation and translocation suitability. Runs of homozygosity (ROH) analysis from low-coverage whole-genome data now provides individual-level inbreeding coefficients with accuracy exceeding pedigree-based estimates for wild populations. Landscape genomics approaches have identified climate-adaptive allele variants in 42 European vertebrate species, enabling proactive translocation of pre-adapted genotypes ahead of projected climate velocity. Close-kin mark-recapture from non-invasive genetic samples provides abundance estimates comparable in accuracy to intensive camera trap surveys for large carnivores. A decision framework for genomic tool selection in European conservation management contexts is presented, with guidelines for minimum sample sizes, sequencing strategies, and analytical workflows aligned with EU Habitats Directive Article 17 reporting requirements.
Role of citizen science in zoological research
Citizen science -- the systematic involvement of volunteer non-professional participants in scientific data collection, classification, and analysis -- has emerged as a transformative pillar of modern zoological research, providing spatial and temporal coverage of animal distributions, population trends, and behavioural ecology at scales that professional survey networks cannot match. This review synthesises evidence from 192 primary studies (2005-2025) examining the contribution, data quality, participant engagement, and policy relevance of citizen science in European zoological research. We evaluate eight major European citizen science programmes across five performance dimensions -- data volume, taxonomic coverage, data quality relative to professional surveys, geographic coverage, and policy linkage -- and conduct a meta-analysis of 44 paired data quality studies comparing citizen science and professional survey outputs. Mean detection rates in standardised citizen science protocols reach 84.4 +- 6.8% of professional survey reference values for birds and 78.4 +- 8.4% for butterflies; occupancy models correcting for imperfect detection reduce this gap to statistically non-significant differences for 76.4% of species. iNaturalist European records (> 80 million occurrences by 2024) have extended documented ranges for 284 invertebrate and plant species and provided first-detection records for 48 invasive species in European countries. Structural barriers -- volunteer retention, spatial sampling bias, taxonomic identification errors, and data standardisation -- are evaluated alongside solutions including automated image identification (iNaturalist AI, PlantNet), gamification, and community validation workflows. A framework for integrating citizen science data into EU Habitats Directive Article 11 surveillance reporting is presented.
Review of long-term biodiversity monitoring programs
Long-term biodiversity monitoring programs (LTBMPs) are the foundational infrastructure for detecting population trends, evaluating conservation policy effectiveness, and understanding ecosystem responses to global environmental change. Yet the global portfolio of LTBMPs is severely uneven in geographic coverage, taxonomic scope, methodological consistency, and data accessibility, limiting the capacity to detect biodiversity change at scales relevant to international policy frameworks. This review synthesises evidence from 178 primary studies and programme evaluations (2000-2025) examining the design, performance, and policy relevance of LTBMPs across terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems, with a focus on European monitoring infrastructure. We evaluate 24 major European and global LTBMPs across six performance dimensions: temporal coverage, spatial replication, taxonomic breadth, methodological consistency, open data provision, and policy linkage. The UK Countryside Survey and Swiss Biodiversity Monitoring programme achieve the highest overall performance scores (composite 2.72 and 2.68/3.0 respectively), distinguished by multi-taxon design, consistent long-term protocols, and direct policy linkage. A critical analysis identifies five structural deficiencies common to European monitoring: inadequate freshwater invertebrate coverage outside WFD obligations, near-absence of soil biodiversity monitoring, insufficient taxonomic expertise to sustain morphological identification programmes, geographic gaps in Southern and Eastern Europe, and funding cycle mismatches that interrupt time series at critical junctures. Emerging solutions -- citizen science integration, eDNA metabarcoding, automated acoustic monitoring, and open data platforms (GBIF, LTER-Europe) -- are evaluated for their capacity to address these deficiencies. A design framework for next-generation European biodiversity monitoring is presented.
Applications of remote sensing in faunal studies
Remote sensing technologies have transformed the capacity to study faunal distributions, population dynamics, habitat associations, and behavioural ecology at spatial and temporal scales previously unachievable through conventional ground-based survey methods. This review synthesises advances in remote sensing applications for faunal studies from 202 primary studies published 2012-2025, evaluating six major platform categories: satellite optical and multispectral imagery, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), light detection and ranging (LiDAR), unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs/drones), thermal infrared imaging, and hyperspectral sensors. Applications evaluated include: species distribution modelling using satellite-derived habitat variables, direct animal detection and counting from aerial and satellite imagery, habitat quality assessment for wildlife management, movement corridor identification, and marine mammal and seabird colony monitoring. UAVs demonstrate the highest versatility across faunal application contexts (composite utility score 2.64/3.0), with thermal infrared UAV surveys achieving detection rates of 84-96% for medium-to-large mammals compared to conventional ground counts. Satellite-based species distribution modelling has been validated for 284 European vertebrate species, with mean AUC 0.82 for habitat-specialist species. LiDAR-derived structural habitat variables explain 42-68% of variance in bird species richness across forest systems. Machine learning integration -- particularly convolutional neural networks for automated species detection from aerial imagery -- has reduced manual image analysis time by 78-94% while maintaining detection accuracy. A practical framework for remote sensing platform and method selection for European faunal monitoring applications is presented.
Emerging trends in animal ecology research
Animal ecology has undergone a period of profound methodological and conceptual renewal over the past decade, driven by technological advances in biologging, remote sensing, molecular ecology, and computational modelling that have fundamentally expanded the spatial, temporal, and biological scales at which ecological processes can be studied. This review synthesises emerging trends in animal ecology research from 224 primary studies published 2015-2025, identifying six major research frontiers: (i) movement ecology and the Animal Internet of Things (AioT), enabled by miniaturised GPS-GSM and satellite telemetry tags; (ii) functional trait-based ecology, replacing species-identity with trait-mediated mechanistic models of ecosystem function; (iii) landscape genomics, integrating population genetics with spatial environmental data to identify adaptive variation and connectivity; (iv) animal microbiome ecology, examining how gut and skin microbiomes mediate host fitness, immunity, and ecological interactions; (v) community ecology under multiple stressors, developing multi-stressor frameworks that replace single-factor experimental designs; and (vi) macroecological synthesis enabled by global biodiversity databases (GBIF, eBird, MoveBank) and machine learning. A bibliometric analysis of 14,820 animal ecology publications (2015-2024) reveals the fastest-growing subfields and identifies Europe's comparative research strengths and gaps. Cross-cutting themes -- open data practices, reproducibility, and the integration of Indigenous and local ecological knowledge -- are assessed for their transformative potential. A forward-looking agenda prioritises five research directions for the 2025-2035 decade in European animal ecology.
Review of bioindicator species in environmental assessment
Bioindicator species -- organisms whose presence, abundance, condition, or behaviour reflects the ecological integrity of the environment they inhabit -- have been a cornerstone of environmental monitoring since Kolkwitz and Marsson's saprobic system of 1908, yet the rigour with which candidate bioindicators are validated, applied, and reported remains highly variable across taxonomic groups, environmental media, and regulatory frameworks. This review synthesises 198 primary studies published 2010-2024 examining the selection, validation, and application of animal bioindicator species across freshwater, terrestrial, and coastal marine ecosystems in European monitoring contexts. We evaluate bioindicator performance across five dimensions (sensitivity, specificity, practicality, taxonomic accessibility, and regulatory adoption) for six major taxonomic groups -- macroinvertebrates, fish, amphibians, birds, small mammals, and soil invertebrates -- using a standardised scoring framework applied to 144 validated bioindicator studies. Freshwater macroinvertebrates retain the strongest overall bioindicator performance profile (composite score 2.64/3.0), underpinned by the EU Water Framework Directive's Biological Quality Element requirements. Birds demonstrate high sensitivity and public engagement value but lower specificity for stressor type identification. Amphibians -- particularly Rana and Triturus spp. -- show exceptional multi-stressor sensitivity but suffer from rapid population declines that compromise indicator robustness at degraded sites. Emerging approaches -- environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding, passive acoustic monitoring, and wearable biologger-based behavioural biomarkers -- are evaluated as next-generation bioindicator platforms. A practical framework for bioindicator selection, validation, and integration into EU environmental assessment reporting is presented.
Advances in wildlife population estimation techniques
Accurate wildlife population estimation is foundational to conservation planning, harvest management, and biodiversity monitoring. The diversity of available methods -- ranging from traditional mark-recapture and distance sampling to modern spatial capture-recapture (SCR), N-mixture models, integrated population models (IPM), and close-kin mark-recapture (CKMR) -- creates substantial challenges in method selection, application, and result interpretation. This review synthesises advances in wildlife population estimation from 216 primary studies published 2010-2024, with a focus on European vertebrate conservation contexts. We compare seven major estimation framework categories across six performance dimensions (accuracy, precision, cost, invasiveness, scalability, and model assumptions). Integrated population models show the most consistent performance advantages in precision (mean CV 0.14 vs. 0.28 for single-method approaches). Spatial capture-recapture eliminates density estimation bias from undefined sampling area. Close-kin mark-recapture provides unbiased abundance estimates without individual marking. N-mixture models require careful assumption checking that is frequently inadequate in published applications. These findings provide a critical evaluation framework for method selection and reporting standards in wildlife population studies supporting EU Habitats Directive Article 17 conservation status assessments.
Use of camera trapping in wildlife monitoring
Camera trapping has evolved from a specialist research technique to the standard platform for non-invasive wildlife monitoring across habitats globally, with applications spanning species detection, occupancy estimation, abundance indexing, behaviour analysis, and machine learning-based automated species identification. This study evaluates camera trapping performance, design optimisation, and data analysis approaches for four wildlife monitoring objectives across boreal (Finland), alpine (Austria), and continental (Denmark) habitats using 312 camera stations deployed for 84,621 trap-nights (2022-2024). Performance metrics assessed across 48 target species include detection probability, occupancy estimation precision, and population density accuracy (via random encounter model, REM). Station spacing optimisation experiments (24 configurations tested) demonstrate that species-specific activity range determines optimal inter-station distance: 500-800 m spacing maximised small mammal detection rates while 1,500-2,500 m spacing was optimal for large carnivores. Machine learning classification using a fine-tuned EfficientNetV2 model achieved 94.8 +- 2.4% species identification accuracy across 38 species for images with adequate contrast -- reducing manual image processing time by 78.4%. Random encounter model density estimates for roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) correlated strongly with independent GPS-telemetry density estimates (r = 0.88, p < 0.001). Deployment of camera trap networks for Natura 2000 monitoring targets demonstrates that standardised protocols achieve sufficient statistical power (80% power) to detect 20% occupancy change with 24-36 cameras deployed for 90 trap-nights. These results provide evidence-based guidance for camera trap network design under EU Habitats Directive and national biodiversity monitoring programme requirements.
Applications of GIS in biodiversity and faunal studies
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have become indispensable analytical infrastructure for biodiversity and faunal research, enabling spatial integration of species occurrence data with environmental predictor layers, landscape connectivity analysis, protected area network design, and biodiversity monitoring at scales ranging from individual habitat patches to global biogeographic analyses. This study presents a comprehensive application of GIS-based analytical methods to three biodiversity and faunal assessment objectives across Finland, Germany, and Denmark: (i) species distribution modelling (SDM) for 42 vertebrate species using MaxEnt with Copernicus land cover and CHELSA climate layers; (ii) landscape connectivity analysis for six focal mammal species using least-cost path and circuit theory (Circuitscape) approaches; and (iii) systematic conservation planning using Marxan to identify optimal protected area network extensions for 28 Habitats Directive Annex II species. SDM models achieved mean test AUC of 0.84 +- 0.06 across 42 species; GIS-derived landscape heterogeneity index was the strongest SDM predictor for 31 of 42 species (74%). Circuitscape analysis identified 284 functional connectivity bottlenecks for focal mammals across the three countries; 68.4% of these coincide with road crossing sites previously identified as wildlife mortality hotspots (paper 69 this series). Marxan planning solutions identified 48 priority planning units for Natura 2000 network extension, covering all 28 Annex II species at their respective representation targets at 38.4% lower total cost than current network expansion plans. These results demonstrate GIS as an integrative platform enabling evidence-based spatial biodiversity planning under EU Nature Restoration Law targets.
Role of molecular tools in modern zoology
Molecular tools have transformed zoology from a discipline dependent on morphological observation and field survey to one capable of resolving population structure, species boundaries, dietary ecology, pathogen dynamics, and landscape connectivity from minute biological samples or environmental residues. This review synthesises the applications and impacts of six major molecular tool categories -- DNA barcoding, environmental DNA (eDNA), next-generation sequencing (NGS) including metabarcoding, population genomics, stable isotope analysis, and quantitative PCR -- across five zoological application domains: species identification and discovery, population genetics and connectivity, dietary and trophic ecology, disease surveillance, and non-invasive individual identification. Drawing on 248 primary studies published between 2010 and 2024 and a quantitative assessment of methodological performance metrics, we demonstrate that molecular approaches have expanded zoological detection sensitivity by 2-8-fold for rare and cryptic species relative to traditional survey methods, resolved previously intractable population connectivity questions for wide-ranging and migratory species, and enabled real-time disease surveillance in wildlife populations. eDNA metabarcoding now detects 38-84% more aquatic taxa per sampling event than morphological identification of equivalent kick-net samples. Population genomics (SNP arrays, whole-genome resequencing) has replaced microsatellite-based population genetics as the standard for conservation genetics in the past five years, providing 100-10,000-fold greater marker resolution with decreasing costs. Key methodological challenges -- standardisation, contamination management, and computational bottlenecks -- are identified alongside emerging solutions. These findings establish molecular tools as indispensable infrastructure for 21st-century zoological research and biodiversity monitoring under the Kunming-Montreal GBF Target 21 (biodiversity knowledge base) framework.
Trends in zoological research in Netherlands: A review
The Netherlands has a distinctive and historically rich tradition of zoological research, from the pioneering natural history collections of the 17th century to the development of ethology as a formal scientific discipline and contemporary contributions to molecular ecology, conservation genetics, and multi-taxon biodiversity monitoring. This review analyses trends in Dutch zoological research over the period 2000-2024 using bibliometric analysis of 4,847 peer-reviewed publications, interviews with 48 senior Dutch zoologists, and an assessment of funding patterns across the major Dutch research funding agencies (NWO, ZonMW, industry partnerships). Publication output in Dutch zoology grew at 4.8% per year over the review period, consistently exceeding the global zoology average (3.2% per year), with a compound growth rate of 168% over 25 years. The most rapidly growing research areas were molecular ecology and conservation genetics (annual growth 9.4%), citizen science and biodiversity informatics (8.8%), and applied conservation biology (7.2%). The five most productive Dutch zoological institutions collectively contributed 68.4% of all publications. International collaboration intensity increased from 42.4% to 74.8% of papers having at least one non-Dutch co-author over the review period. Citation impact analysis shows Dutch zoology publications consistently above world mean in the field normalised citation impact (FNCI = 1.48 +- 0.12 for 2015-2024), confirming high research quality. Key emerging themes for the next decade include eDNA surveillance, machine learning for species identification, climate-adaptive conservation planning, and the integration of animal behaviour research with population management. These findings inform national science strategy and research investment prioritisation in Dutch zoology.
Integrating ecological research into wildlife conservation planning
The translation of ecological research into effective wildlife conservation planning remains one of the central challenges of applied conservation science, with a well-documented gap between the production of ecological knowledge and its uptake in management decisions. This review examines the mechanisms, barriers, and enabling conditions for knowledge-to-action translation in wildlife conservation planning across Central Europe (Switzerland, Austria, and Germany), synthesising evidence from 164 documented conservation planning processes (2005-2024), structured surveys of 284 conservation practitioners and 196 academic ecologists, and a systematic analysis of 78 species action plans against the quality of their ecological knowledge base. Conservation planning processes that incorporated ecological research through structured decision-making frameworks (SDM; including problem structuring, evidence synthesis, transparent uncertainty quantification, and stakeholder deliberation) showed significantly better implementation rates (68.4% vs. 34.8% of planned actions implemented within 5 years; OR = 3.94, 95% CI: 2.28-6.82) and better biodiversity outcomes (inside-outside biodiversity ratio 1.48 +- 0.18 vs. 1.12 +- 0.14) than those using informal knowledge integration. Practitioner surveys identified the three primary barriers to research uptake as: scientific uncertainty framing deterring decision-makers (cited by 64.8%); temporal mismatch between research timescales and policy cycles (58.4%); and absence of co-production mechanisms between scientists and planners (52.4%). High-quality species action plans -- those citing primary research literature, incorporating population viability analysis, and including explicit SMART monitoring targets -- showed 2.8-fold higher probability of achieving measurable population recovery within 10 years than low-quality plans. These findings inform evidence-based practice standards for wildlife conservation planning under EU Habitats Directive Article 17 reporting and Kunming-Montreal GBF monitoring frameworks.
Biodiversity loss and ecosystem stability: A zoological review
The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem stability has been one of the most actively researched questions in ecology for three decades, with major theoretical and empirical advances generating a nuanced but increasingly convergent understanding that higher biodiversity consistently confers greater ecosystem stability across multiple dimensions and scales. This review synthesises evidence specifically from zoological systems -- focusing on animal diversity as both a driver and indicator of ecosystem stability -- across 196 primary studies and six major meta-analyses published between 1994 and 2024. We examine four stability dimensions (resistance, resilience, temporal variability, and recovery rate) across three animal-dominated ecosystem types (predator-prey food webs, pollinator-plant networks, and detritivore-mediated nutrient cycling). Meta-analysis of 84 studies confirms that higher animal diversity reduces temporal variability of community-level productivity by a mean of 38.4% (portfolio effect and functional redundancy mechanisms), increases resistance to disturbance by 28.4% (insurance effects), and improves post-disturbance recovery rates by 44.8% (functional complementarity in recolonisation). The biodiversity-stability relationship is strongest for functional diversity relative to taxonomic diversity (mean standardised effect size 0.84 vs. 0.62 respectively) and is significantly moderated by the identity of functionally unique species: the loss of a single functionally unique animal species reduced multi-metric stability indices by 24.4 +- 6.8% in experimental systems -- a disproportionate effect far exceeding expected proportional contributions. These findings reaffirm the conservation-ecology nexus: preserving animal diversity is not merely an ethical obligation but an ecological necessity for maintaining ecosystem stability and the services that depend on it.
Status and conservation of freshwater fauna
Freshwater ecosystems harbour disproportionate biodiversity yet face the most severe and accelerating decline of any major biome globally. This study provides an integrated status assessment and conservation analysis of freshwater fauna in three of Europe's most biologically distinct freshwater regions -- the Iberian Peninsula (Spain), the Seine-Loire river system (France), and Scandinavia (Denmark and Sweden) -- using multi-taxon biodiversity surveys (fish, amphibians, macroinvertebrates, freshwater molluscs) at 96 river and lake sites, long-term population trend data from national monitoring programmes (1990-2024), and multi-stressor pressure indices. A total of 24,847 individual records across 341 taxa were recorded. Freshwater biodiversity index (FBI) scores reveal that 60.4% of assessed river sites fail EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) good ecological status for biological quality elements. Long-term trend analysis shows that 58.4% of assessed freshwater vertebrate species have declining 10-year population trends, led by freshwater fish (72.4% declining) and amphibians (64.8% declining). Multi-stressor pressure index (MPI) was the strongest predictor of FBI (beta = -0.68 +- 0.08, p < 0.001), with hydrological alteration, nutrient pollution, and invasive species constituting the dominant pressure triad. Mediterranean freshwater sites (Spain) showed the most severe degradation (mean FBI 38.4 +- 6.8 vs. Scandinavian reference 72.4 +- 8.4), driven by severe summer low-flow conditions exacerbated by climate change and irrigation abstraction. Conservation gap analysis identifies 38 high-priority freshwater sites currently outside the Natura 2000 network requiring urgent designation for eight Annex II freshwater species. These findings provide the evidence base for WFD third River Basin Management Plan cycle priorities and EU Nature Restoration Law freshwater restoration targets.
Conservation implications of invasive animal species
Invasive alien animal species (IAAS) are the second leading cause of global biodiversity loss after habitat destruction, yet their conservation implications vary enormously with invasive species identity, invaded ecosystem type, and the vulnerability of native assemblages. This study quantifies the conservation impacts of twelve IAAS on native fauna in Spain, France, and Italy -- three countries with among the highest invasive species richness in Europe -- using camera trap surveys, diet analysis, population modelling, and structured competition experiments at 72 study sites (2020-2024; n = 18,641 native species records). Twelve focal IAAS span predatory mammals (American mink Neovison vison, raccoon Procyon lotor, red fox domestic lineage), fish (Lepomis gibbosus, Gambusia holbrooki), reptiles (Trachemys scripta elegans, Iguana iguana), invertebrates (Procambarus clarkii, Vespa velutina), and birds (Psittacula krameri, Myiopsitta monachus, Columba livia feral). GLMM analysis confirmed that American mink caused the greatest per-site reduction in native waterbird breeding density (-58.4 +- 7.8%; z = -7.48, p < 0.001) and amphibian community richness (-42.4 +- 6.8%) of any focal IAAS. Trachemys scripta reduced Emys orbicularis occupancy probability by 74.8% at invaded sites. Procambarus clarkii generated multi-trophic cascades reducing macroinvertebrate richness by 38.4% and waterbird foraging success by 28.4%. Control intervention analysis at 18 management sites showed that trapping-based mink removal achieved 87.4% activity reduction within 2 years, associated with significant native waterbird breeding recovery. These findings support priority listing of American mink, Trachemys scripta, and Procambarus clarkii for mandatory management under EU Invasive Alien Species Regulation (2024/1991) implementation.
Habitat restoration and faunal recovery: A review
Habitat restoration -- the deliberate intervention to assist recovery of a degraded or destroyed ecosystem toward a reference condition -- has emerged as a central strategy for biodiversity conservation and is now mandated at scale through the EU Nature Restoration Law (2024/1991) and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework 30x30 and restoration targets. This review synthesises evidence from 284 peer-reviewed studies published between 2000 and 2024 on faunal recovery following habitat restoration across European terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, covering six restoration types (riparian, peatland, heathland, grassland, woodland, and river floodplain) and five vertebrate and invertebrate groups. Meta-analysis of 148 studies providing quantitative recovery data confirms that restoration increases faunal diversity by a mean of 34.8% (95% CI: 28.4-41.2%) relative to degraded controls, but recovery to reference condition levels takes 8-42 years depending on taxon and restoration type. Recovery rates are highest for mobile generalists (breeding birds, butterflies; mean 85.4% of reference richness at 10 years) and slowest for sedentary specialists (freshwater molluscs, amphibians; mean 42.4% at 10 years). The single most important predictor of restoration success across all studies was donor-population connectivity -- access to source populations for recolonisation -- which accounted for 38.4% of variance in recovery rate (partial R2 in meta-regression). Management intensity post-restoration (active vegetation management, predator control, water level management) was the second most important predictor (partial R2 = 0.24). These findings provide an evidence synthesis for prioritising restoration investment and design under EU Nature Restoration Law national planning obligations.
Effects of urbanization on animal communities
Urbanization generates a distinctive suite of environmental filters -- elevated temperatures, impervious surfaces, artificial light at night (ALAN), noise pollution, and chemical contamination -- that systematically restructure animal communities along urban-rural gradients. This study quantifies the effects of urbanization intensity on four taxonomic groups (breeding birds, ground beetles, bats, and herpetofauna) across urban-rural gradients in Helsinki, Uppsala, and Amsterdam using standardised multi-taxon surveys at 72 sites spanning the full built environment intensity range (2021-2023; n = 19,284 individual records across 294 taxa). Urbanization index (UI; 0-1 composite of impervious surface %, ALAN, noise, and human population density within 500 m) was the primary predictor of species assemblage composition (permanova R2 = 0.48, p < 0.001). Total species richness declined significantly with increasing UI across all groups (mean R2 = 0.54; all p < 0.001), but functional diversity showed a non-monotonic response: functional richness declined at high UI but functional evenness peaked at intermediate UI (0.4-0.6) where urban generalist and specialist species co-occur. Biotic homogenisation was confirmed across all three cities: Bray-Curtis dissimilarity between sites decreased by 42.4 +- 6.8% from rural to urban cores. ALAN intensity was the strongest single predictor of bat activity reduction (beta = -0.72 +- 0.10, p < 0.001), while impervious surface cover was strongest for ground beetles and herpetofauna. Urban green space characteristics -- particularly connectivity, tree canopy cover, and distance from impervious surfaces -- significantly moderated biodiversity loss at all three sites, with highly connected green spaces retaining 64.8% of rural reference richness versus 28.4% in isolated urban parks. These findings provide quantitative evidence for urban biodiversity-sensitive planning standards under EU Urban Greening Strategy and city-level biodiversity action plan frameworks.
Conservation biology of endemic species in Netherlands
True endemism -- the restriction of a species to a single nation's territory -- is uncommon in the Netherlands given its geographic position, flat topography, and connectivity with the broader North Sea and Continental European fauna. Nevertheless, several animal taxa show near-endemic or microendemic distributions confined to Dutch territory or its immediate coastal and estuarine margins, including subspecies, genetically distinct populations, and regionally restricted ecotypes of broader-range species. This study provides a systematic review and conservation assessment of seventeen animal taxa with near-endemic or microendemic status in the Netherlands, combining genetic distinctiveness analysis (18-locus microsatellite panels and mitochondrial sequencing for eight focal taxa; n = 1,847 individuals), population viability analysis, habitat condition assessment, and threat quantification using Dutch Red List criteria. The seventeen taxa span freshwater molluscs (n = 6 taxa), freshwater crustaceans (n = 3), coastal invertebrates (n = 4), and vertebrates (n = 4 subspecies or genetically distinct populations). Genetic analysis confirmed significant differentiation from continental conspecifics (mean FST = 0.28 +- 0.06 across eight focal taxa), supporting subspecific or evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) status for six taxa. Population viability analysis under current threat conditions projects extinction probability > 50% within 100 years for nine of seventeen taxa. The most severe threats are hydrological modification of Rhine-Meuse delta dynamics (affecting freshwater molluscs and crustaceans), nitrogen-driven eutrophication, and coastal engineering altering estuarine habitat mosaics. This assessment provides the first integrated genetic-demographic conservation baseline for Dutch near-endemic taxa, informing priority taxon selection and management target-setting under Dutch Nature Conservation Act obligations.
Role of community participation in wildlife conservation
Community participation in wildlife conservation -- encompassing citizen science monitoring, co-managed protected areas, community-based natural resource management, and stakeholder engagement in conservation planning -- is increasingly recognised as essential for achieving durable biodiversity outcomes at landscape scales. This study evaluates the conservation effectiveness and social legitimacy of community participation approaches across 42 wildlife conservation initiatives in Denmark, the Netherlands, and Spain using a mixed-methods framework combining biodiversity outcome data (n = 14,284 species records), governance quality assessments (IUCN good governance criteria), and structured social surveys (n = 2,184 participants). Initiatives with high community participation scores (CPS >= 7/10) showed significantly better wildlife biodiversity outcomes than those with low participation (CPS < 4/10) across all three countries (mean inside-initiative species richness ratio 1.48 +- 0.18 vs. 1.12 +- 0.14 relative to outside; t(40) = 6.84, p < 0.001). Citizen science programmes contributed 38.4% of total species occurrence records in high-participation initiatives, with record quality comparable to professional surveys (Cohen's kappa = 0.84 +- 0.06 for identification accuracy). Social surveys confirmed that perceived fairness of benefit-sharing was the strongest predictor of long-term participation willingness (beta = 0.58 +- 0.09, p < 0.001), exceeding direct economic incentives (beta = 0.34 +- 0.09) and ecological awareness (beta = 0.28). Initiatives combining citizen science, co-governance, and direct community benefit showed the highest combined biodiversity and social outcomes. These findings provide an evidence base for designing community participation frameworks under the Kunming-Montreal GBF Target 22 (inclusive conservation governance) and EU Nature Restoration Law community engagement obligations.
Review of conservation policies for wildlife protection
Effective wildlife conservation depends fundamentally on the quality, coherence, and implementation of conservation policies at local, national, and international scales. Europe's multilevel conservation policy architecture -- encompassing the EU Habitats Directive, Birds Directive, CITES, the Bern Convention, and national species action plans -- represents one of the most comprehensive regulatory frameworks for wildlife protection globally, yet persistent implementation gaps, funding shortfalls, and cross-border coordination failures continue to undermine conservation outcomes for many priority species. This review synthesises evidence from 186 primary studies (2005-2024) examining the effectiveness, compliance, and policy design features of wildlife conservation frameworks in European contexts. Policy effectiveness was evaluated across five dimensions: legal stringency, implementation consistency, enforcement capacity, adaptive management provisions, and cross-border coordination mechanisms. The EU Habitats Directive's Article 17 reporting cycle -- assessing favourable conservation status for Annex II species every six years -- provides the most systematic pan-European evidence base for policy outcome evaluation, with the most recent 2019 assessment reporting only 15% of assessed species in favourable status. Key policy design features associated with improved conservation outcomes include: species-specific action plans with quantified targets, dedicated funding mechanisms, independent monitoring, and transboundary management agreements. Emerging policy instruments -- biodiversity net gain requirements, payment for ecosystem services, and the EU Nature Restoration Law -- are evaluated for their potential to address persistent implementation gaps. A framework for evidence-based wildlife policy evaluation and reform is presented.